How Might Abnormalities In An Animal's Anatomy And Physiology

Special Issue "Advances in Animal Anatomy"

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Matilde Lombardero
E-Post Website
Guest Editor

Unit of measurement of Veterinary Beefcake and Embryology, Section of Beefcake, Animal Production and Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Kinesthesia of Veterinary Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela–Campus of Lugo, 27002 Lugo, Spain
Interests: veterinarian sciences; anatomy
Special Bug, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Mar Yllera Fernández
Email Website
Invitee Editor

Unit of measurement of Veterinary Anatomy and Embryology, Department of Anatomy, Animal Production and Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinarian Sciences, Academy of Santiago de Compostela–Campus of Lugo, 27002 Lugo, Espana
Interests: fauna beefcake; embryology; welfare, behaviour and anatomy of laboratory animals; applied beefcake of exotic animals; veterinary embryology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Effect Information

Dear Colleagues,

Knowledge of veterinary anatomy (as a bones science) is a prerequisite to master clinical (and some preclinical) disciplines and, subsequently, veterinary practice. Fortunately, descriptive anatomy is no longer the just method of didactics veterinary anatomy, and instead, applied veterinary anatomy is providing boosted value in practical and clinical study.

As the subject of veterinary anatomy is existence progressively reduced in academic programs, only bones functional, comparative, and practical aspects are taught in depth, even though knowledge of certain other anatomy-related concepts may be of great interest in application. Hence, we aim to publish original inquiry, as well as reviews, that improve our understanding of practical veterinarian anatomy, peculiarly papers that address the following topics:

1- Practical anatomy of domestic animals (mammals and birds), which facilitates the use of dissimilar approaches and the recognition of structures in diagnostic imaging or which helps in the comprehension of animal physiology.

2- Anatomy of wildlife, which could be very helpful to specialized veterinarians, researchers, and technicians to maintain the welfare of animals in zoos and wildlife recovery centers.

3- Beefcake of new companion animals, focused on the less well-known species that are being introduced into homes and crave veterinary assistance, mainly because they are not adapted to life in captivity. Noesis of their anatomy is essential, specifically in the following areas:

3.1- Diagnostic imaging to facilitate the recognition of the bones, viscera, and vessels in gild to make a correct diagnosis.

3.2- Admission to their superficial venous system that would allow for the taking claret samples or treatment administration (drugs/rehydration by dropper, etc.).

three.3- Clinical interventions (intubation, surgery, etc.) performed to avoid dissentious vital structures.

3.4- Their anatomical adaptations to the environment during evolution and the pathologies derived from displacement from their habitats and life in captivity.

Additionally, apart from anatomical noesis, the preservation of dissected specimens or their viscera is essential for the post-obit:

1- Teaching in faculties/schools of veterinary medicine, every bit well as exhibiting specimens in anatomical museums, to avoid long and meticulous dissections and to reuse dissected specimens as much equally possible.

ii- The study of the anatomy of the new companion animals, of which in that location are few specimens available for studying.

The well-nigh used conservation method during the 20th century was formaldehyde (used in dissimilar concentrations or as part of fixative solutions), which must be abandoned due to its carcinogenic potential and powerful irritant outcome on the optics and airways. In add-on, formaldehyde modifies considerably the colour and consistency of tissues, creating confusion near the normal macroscopic appearance. Furthermore, information technology causes muscles to become rigid, reducing the physiological movement of joints, which is essential for teaching future veterinarians and technicians.

In recent years, new preservatives accept been tested to minimize such drawbacks, such as the employ of saturated saline solution; therefore, nosotros besides invite our colleagues to submit contributions describing their advances in preservation methods that will surely improve the practical study of anatomy.

Prof. Matilde Lombardero
Prof. María del Mar Yllera
Invitee Editor

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Keywords

Applied veterinarian beefcake
Domestic species
Exotic pets
Wild animals
Gross anatomy
Anatomical preservation
Dissection

Published Papers (14 papers)

Open up Access Article

Radiogrametric Analysis of the Thoracic Limb Phalanges in Arabian Horses and Thoroughbred Horses

Viewed by 1728

Abstract

In this written report, it was aimed to determine the statistical differences between Arabian horses and Thoroughbred horses based on X-ray images of forelimb digital bones. Latero-medial X-ray images of digital basic of thoracic limbs were taken of 25 Arabian horses and l Thoroughbred [...] Read more than.

In this report, it was aimed to make up one's mind the statistical differences between Arabian horses and Thoroughbred horses based on X-ray images of forelimb digital bones. Latero-medial X-ray images of digital bones of thoracic limbs were taken of 25 Arabian horses and 50 Thoroughbred healthy horses. The difference between males and females within the breed was statistically analyzed every bit well. Nine measurements and three indexes taken from phalanges of thoracic limbs were used. Thoroughbred horses did not differ significantly between sexes, as indicated by the ANOVA. For the Arabian horses, the length of the heart of the proximal phalanx (p < 0.05), the length of the center of the middle phalanx (p < 0.001), and the length of the dorsal surface of the distal phalanx (p < 0.05) measurement points were establish to be differentiated betwixt sexes. In the analysis made between Thoroughbred horses and Arabian horses with no respect to sex, the critical measurement was the depth of the caput of the proximal phalanx. The discriminant analysis enabled the correct classification of 89.33% of the proximal phalanx samples to the exact breed. The correct classification rate was 77.33% in the case of middle phalanx and 54.67% in the instance of distal phalanx. Measurement results of the distal phalanx were found to exist insignificant between both breeds and sexes. The radiological measurements of digital basic showed that sexual dimorphism was not too expressed and that decisive differences were found between the breeds. Total commodity

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Open Access Commodity

Endoscopic Study of the Oral and Pharyngeal Cavities in the Common Dolphin, Striped Dolphin, Risso's Dolphin, Harbour Porpoise and Pilot Whale: Reinforced with Other Diagnostic and Anatomic Techniques

Viewed by 1197

Abstract

In this work, the fetal and newborn anatomical structures of the dolphin oropharyngeal cavities were studied. The main technique used was endoscopy, equally these cavities are narrow tubular spaces and the oral crenel is hard to photograph without moving the specimen. The endoscope [...] Read more.

In this work, the fetal and newborn anatomical structures of the dolphin oropharyngeal cavities were studied. The main technique used was endoscopy, as these cavities are narrow tubular spaces and the oral fissure is hard to photograph without moving the specimen. The endoscope was used to study the mucosal features of the oral and pharyngeal cavities. 2 pharyngeal diverticula of the auditory tubes were discovered on either side of the choanae and larynx. These spaces begin close to the musculotubaric channel of the heart ear, are linked to the pterygopalatine recesses (pterygoid sinus) and they extend to the maxillopalatine fossa. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), osteological analysis, sectional anatomy, dissections, and histology were also used to better understand the role of the pharyngeal diverticula of the auditory tubes. These information were so compared with the horse's pharyngeal diverticula of the auditory tubes. The histology revealed that a vascular plexus inside these diverticula could assistance to expel the air from this space to the nasopharynx. In the oral crenel, teeth remain inside the alveolus and covered by gums. The marginal papillae of the tongue differ in extension depending on the fetal specimen studied. The histology reveals that the incisive papilla is vestigial and contain abundant innervation. No ducts were observed inside lateral sublingual folds in the oral fissure proper and caruncles were non seen in the prefrenular space. Full commodity

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Open up Admission Commodity

Morphometrical Written report of the Lumbar Segment of the Internal Vertebral Venous Plexus in Dogs: A Contrast CT-Based Written report

Cited past 2 | Viewed by 969

Abstruse

The internal vertebral venous plexus (IVVP) is a thin-walled, valveless venous network that is located inside the vertebral canal, communicating with the cerebral venous sinuses. The objective of this study was to perform a morphometric analysis of the IVVP, dural sac, epidural space [...] Read more.

The internal vertebral venous plexus (IVVP) is a sparse-walled, valveless venous network that is located within the vertebral culvert, communicating with the cerebral venous sinuses. The objective of this study was to perform a morphometric analysis of the IVVP, dural sac, epidural space and vertebral canal betwixt the L1 and L7 vertebrae with dissimilarity-enhanced computed tomography (CT). Six clinically healthy adult dogs weighing between 12 kg to 28 kg were used in the study. The CT venographic protocol consisted of a transmission injection of 880 mgI/kg of contrast agent (587 mgI/kg in a bolus and 293 mgI/mL past continuous infusion). In all CT images, the dimensions of the IVVP, dural sac, and vertebral canal were collected. Dorsal reconstruction CT images showed a continuous rhomboidal morphological pattern for the IVVP. The dural sac was observed equally a rounded isodense structure throughout the vertebral canal. The average expanse of the IVVP ranged from 0.61 to 0.74 mm² between L1 and L7 vertebrae (vi.3–8.9% of the vertebral culvert), and the area of the dural sac was between 1.22 and 7.42 mm^two (thirteen.8–72.2% of the vertebral canal). The area of the epidural infinite between L1 and L7 ranged from 2.85 to 7.78 mm² (27.eight–86.ii% of the vertebral culvert). This CT venography protocol is a safe method that allows acceptable visualization and morphometric evaluation of the IVVP and side by side structures. Full commodity

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Open up Access Article

Cranial Structure of Varanus komodoensis as Revealed past Computed-Tomographic Imaging

Viewed by 940

Abstract

This study aimed to depict the anatomic features of the normal head of the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) identified past computed tomography. CT images were obtained in two dragons using a helical CT scanner. All sections were displayed with a bone [...] Read more.

This study aimed to describe the anatomic features of the normal caput of the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) identified by computed tomography. CT images were obtained in two dragons using a helical CT scanner. All sections were displayed with a bone and soft tissue windows setting. Caput reconstructed, and maximum intensity projection images were obtained to enhance bony structures. After CT imaging, the images were compared with other studies and reptile anatomy textbooks to facilitate the estimation of the CT images. Anatomic details of the head of the Komodo dragon were identified according to the CT density characteristics of the different organic tissues. This information is intended to exist a useful initial anatomic reference in interpreting clinical CT imaging studies of the head and associated structures in live Komodo dragons. Full article

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Open Access Article

Comparative Anatomy of the Nasal Crenel in the Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis Fifty., Striped Dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba M. and Airplane pilot Whale Globicephala melas T.: A Developmental Written report

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Our goal was to analyze the master anatomical structures of the dolphin external nose and nasal crenel from fetal developmental stages to adult. Endoscopy was used to report the mutual development of the external nose and the melon, and nasal mucosa. Magnetic resonance [...] Read more than.

Our goal was to analyze the main anatomical structures of the dolphin external nose and nasal cavity from fetal developmental stages to adult. Endoscopy was used to study the common evolution of the external olfactory organ and the melon, and nasal mucosa. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and anatomical sections were correlated with anatomical sections. Computed tomography (CT) was used to generate 3D reconstructions of the nasal bones and nasal cavities to study its development. Dissections, histological and pathological studies were carried out on the nasal mucosa to understand its part. These results were compared with the horse. Endoscopy showed an external nose with two lips and the upper lip is divided past a groove due to the nasal septum and an obstacle of right nasal crenel was diagnosed in a newborn. Two diverticula (air sacs) were found in the nasal vestibule and an incisive recess (premaxillary sac) in the nasal cavity. These findings were corroborated by 3D reconstructions of the nasal cavities, MRI, anatomical sections and dissections. The presphenoid and ethmoid bones were fused at early stages of fetal development. The ethmoid is the concluding bone to ossify in the nasal crenel. Full commodity

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Open up Access Article

Sex Determination in 2 Species of Anuran Amphibians past Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Ultrasound Techniques

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1314

Abstract

The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether gender conclusion in two amphibian species (Kaloula pulchra and Xenopus laevis) tin exist reliably carried out by ways of magnetic resonance imaging (benchtop magnetic resonance imaging; BT-MRI) or ultrasound (loftier-resolution ultrasound; [...] Read more.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether gender determination in ii amphibian species (Kaloula pulchra and Xenopus laevis) can be reliably carried out by ways of magnetic resonance imaging (benchtop magnetic resonance imaging; BT-MRI) or ultrasound (high-resolution ultrasound; HR-The states) techniques. Two species of healthy, sexually mature anurans have been used in the present study. Eight Kaloula (bullheaded study) and six Xenopus were used equally controls. Magnetic resonance imaging experiments were carried out on a low-field (ane Tesla) benchtop-MRI (BT-MRI) system. HR-US examination was performed with high-resolution equipment. Low-field BT-MRI images provided a articulate and quantifiable identification of all the sexual organs present in both genders and species. The 60 minutes-Us besides allowed the identification of testes and ovaries in both species. Results indicate that BT-MRI allowed a very precise sex identification in both anuran species, although its use is express by the cost of the equipment and the demand for anesthesia. Hour-United states allowed an accurate identification of ovaries of both species whereas a precise identification of testes is limited past the ultrasonographer experience. The main advantages of this technique are the possibility of performing information technology without anesthesia and the college availability of equipment in veterinarian and zoo institutions. Total article

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Open Access Article

Maxillary Incisors of the Horse before and at the Beginning of the Teeth Shedding: Radiographic and CT Study

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Abstruse

To gain insight into the radiographic appearance of maxillary deciduous incisors and dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors in the flow prior to teeth shedding, radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of 25 horse skulls, with an estimated age of between 12 and 42 [...] Read more than.

To proceeds insight into the radiographic appearance of maxillary deciduous incisors and dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors in the menstruation prior to teeth shedding, radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of 25 horse skulls, with an estimated historic period of between 12 and 42 months, were studied. Information regarding morphology and evolution were obtained. Dental germs of outset maxillary permanent incisors were identified radiographically every bit rounded radiolucent areas at the level of the apical parts of the first deciduous incisors, in skulls with an estimated age of twelve months. The starting time sign of crown mineralization of these dental germs appeared in skulls supposedly a few months older. Before teeth shedding, the unerupted, mineralized crowns of the first permanent incisor could exist identified radiographically relatively caudal to the corresponding outset deciduous incisors. The results of the nowadays report betoken that radiographic intraoral images are suitable to place the course of evolution of the dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors. A detailed clarification of the radiographic appearance of deciduous incisors and dental germs of permanent incisors will help clinicians to expand their noesis for diagnostic or treatment purposes. Full article

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Open Access Article

Anatomical Assessment of the Thorax in the Neonatal Foal Using Computed Tomography Angiography, Sectional Anatomy, and Gross Dissections

Cited past 1 | Viewed by 1038

Abstruse

The purpose of this study was to correlate the anatomic features of the normal thorax of neonatal foals identified by CTA, with anatomical sections and gross dissections. Contrast-enhanced transverse CTA images were obtained in three neonatal foals using a helical CT scanner. All [...] Read more.

The purpose of this written report was to correlate the anatomic features of the normal thorax of neonatal foals identified by CTA, with anatomical sections and gross dissections. Contrast-enhanced transverse CTA images were obtained in three neonatal foals using a helical CT scanner. All sections were imaged with a bone, mediastinal, and lung windows setting. Moreover, cardiac volume-rendered reconstructed images were obtained. After CT imaging, the cadaver foals were sectioned and dissected to facilitate the interpretation of the intrathoracic cardiovascular structures to the respective CTA images. Anatomic details of the thorax of neonatal foals were identified according to the characteristics of CT density of the unlike organic tissues and compared with the corresponding anatomical sections and gross dissections. The information obtained provided a valid anatomic design of the thorax of foals, and useful information for CTA studies of this region. Full article

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Open Access Article

A Morphological and Morphometric Dental Analysis every bit a Forensic Tool to Identify the Iberian Wolf (Canis Lupus Signatus)

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1894

Abstract

Depredation by the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) is currently thought to be a problem in some areas of Spain. All the same, there are few technically validated forensic tools available to determine the veracity of claims with a high degree of scientific [...] Read more than.

Depredation by the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) is currently thought to be a problem in some areas of Spain. Even so, there are few technically validated forensic tools available to determine the veracity of claims with a high degree of scientific confidence, which is of import given that such attacks may lead to bounty. The assay of bite marks on attacked animals could provide scientific evidence to help identify the offender. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the morphological and morphometric characteristics of Iberian wolf dentition. This data collection would serve as a base-point for a more accurate identification of the wolves thorough their bite marks. For the first time, 36 dental variables have been studied in wolves' skulls, employing univariate and multivariate analyses. The general morphological dental characteristics of wolves are very similar in terms of their dental formula and molar structure to other canids, like domestic dogs. Sex differentiation was evident, principally in terms of the maxillary distance between the palatal surfaces of the canine teeth (UbC) and the width of the left mandibular canine teeth (LlCWd). New morphometric reference data was obtained that can aid the forensic identification of seize with teeth marks caused past the Iberian wolf with greater confidence. Full article

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Open Access Article

A Study of the Caput during Prenatal and Perinatal Development of Two Fetuses and One Newborn Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba, Meyen 1833) Using Dissections, Exclusive Anatomy, CT, and MRI: Anatomical and Functional Implications in Cetaceans and Terrestrial Mammals

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1523

Abstruse

Our objective was to analyze the main anatomical structures of the dolphin head during its developmental stages. About dolphin studies use only one fetal specimen due to the difficulty in obtaining these materials. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) of two [...] Read more.

Our objective was to clarify the main anatomical structures of the dolphin caput during its developmental stages. Most dolphin studies use just one fetal specimen due to the difficulty in obtaining these materials. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) of two fetuses (younger and older) and a perinatal specimen cadaver of striped dolphins were scanned. Only the older fetus was frozen and then was transversely cantankerous-sectioned. In add-on, gross dissections of the caput were fabricated on a perinatal and an adult specimen. In the oral cavity, only the mandible and maxilla teeth have started to erupt, while the most rostral teeth have not yet erupted. No salivary glands and masseter musculus were observed. The melon was well identified in CT/MRI images at early stages of development. CT and MRI images allowed observation of the maxillary sinus. The orbit and eyeball were analyzed and the absence of infraorbital rim together with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone belongings periorbit were described. An enlarged auditory tube was identified using anatomical sections, CT, and MRI. We also compare the dolphin head anatomy with some mammals, trying to underline the anatomical and physiological changes and explicate them from an ontogenic indicate of view. Full commodity

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Open Admission Article

Anatomic Study of the Elbow Joint in a Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Gross Dissections

Cited past two | Viewed by 1913

Abstract

The objective of our research was to depict the normal advent of the bony and soft tissue structures of the elbow joint in a cadaver of a male person mature Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) scanned via MRI. Using a 0.2 Tesla [...] Read more than.

The objective of our research was to describe the normal advent of the bony and soft tissue structures of the elbow joint in a cadaver of a male mature Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) scanned via MRI. Using a 0.2 Tesla magnet, Spin-echo (SE) T1-weighting, and Slope-echo curt tau inversion recovery (GE-STIR), T2-weighting pulse sequences were selected to generate sagittal, transverse, and dorsal planes. In improver, gross dissections of the forelimb and its elbow articulation were made. On anatomic dissections, all bony, articular, and muscular structures could be identified. The MRI images allowed usa to observe the bony and many soft tissues of the tiger elbow joint. The SE T1-weighted MR images provided practiced anatomic particular of this joint, whereas the GE-STIR T2-weighted MR pulse sequence was best for synovial cavities. Detailed information is provided that may exist used as initial anatomic reference for interpretation of MR images of the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) elbow articulation and in the diagnosis of disorders of this region. Full article

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Open Access Review

The True cat Mandible (Two): Manipulation of the Jaw, with a New Prosthesis Proposal, to Avoid Iatrogenic Complications

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 995

Abstract

The cat mandible is relatively modest, and its manipulation implies the utilise of fixing methods and different repair techniques according to its small size to keep its biomechanical functionality intact. Attempts to gear up dislocations of the temporomandibular joint should be primarily performed past [...] Read more.

The cat mandible is relatively small, and its manipulation implies the use of fixing methods and dissimilar repair techniques according to its small size to go on its biomechanical functionality intact. Attempts to gear up dislocations of the temporomandibular joint should be primarily performed by non-invasive techniques (repositioning the bones and immobilisation), although when this is not possible, a surgical method should be used. Regarding mandibular fractures, these are unremarkably concurrent with other traumatic injuries that, if serious, should exist treated offset. A non-invasive arroyo should also kickoff be considered to fix mandibular fractures. When this is impractical, internal rigid fixation methods, such as osteosynthesis plates, should be used. Nevertheless, it should be taken into account that in the cat mandible, dental roots and the mandibular canal structures occupy nigh of the volume of the mandibular body, a fact that makes it challenging to utilise a plate with fixed spiral positions without invading dental roots or neurovascular structures. Therefore, we suggest a new prosthesis blueprint that will provide adequate rigid biomechanical stabilisation, but avoid dental root and neurovascular damage, when fixing elementary mandibular trunk fractures. Future trends will include the utilize of better diagnostic imaging techniques, a patient-specific prosthesis design and the use of more biocompatible materials to minimise the patient's recovery menses and suffering. Full article

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Open up Access Review

The True cat Mandible (I): Anatomical Ground to Avert Iatrogenic Impairment in Veterinary Clinical Practice

Cited past two | Viewed by 1893

Abstract

Cats are one of our favourite pets in the habitation. They differ considerably from dogs but are usually treated clinically as minor dogs, despite some anatomical and physiological dissimilarities. Their mandible is small and has some peculiarities relative to the dentition (only iii [...] Read more than.

Cats are 1 of our favourite pets in the dwelling. They differ considerably from dogs but are usually treated clinically every bit small dogs, despite some anatomical and physiological dissimilarities. Their mandible is small and has some peculiarities relative to the dentition (only three incisors, a prominent canine, two premolars and one molar); a conical and horizontally oriented condyle, and a protudent angular process in its ventrocaudal function. Most of the torso of the mandible is occupied by the mandibular dental roots and the mandibular canal that protects the neurovascular supply: the junior alveolar artery and vein, and the inferior alveolar nervus that exits the mandible rostrally as the mental fretfulness. They irrigate and innervate all the teeth and associated structures such as the lips and gingiva. Tooth roots and the mandibular canal account for upward to 70% of the volume of the mandibular body. Consequently, when fractured it is difficult to repair without invading the dental roots or vascular structures. Gaining a comprehensive anatomical knowledge and practiced clinical practice (such as image diagnosis before and mail service-surgery) will aid in the awareness and abstention of iatrogenic complications in day-to-day feline clinical practice. Total article

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Open Admission Review

Leonardo da Vinci's Animate being Anatomy: Comport and Equus caballus Drawings Revisited

Cited by one | Viewed past 3620

Abstract

Leonardo da Vinci was ane of the about influencing personalities of his fourth dimension, the perfect representation of the platonic Renaissance man, an expert painter, engineer and anatomist. Regarding Leonardo'south anatomical drawings, autonomously from man anatomy, he likewise depicted some brute species. This comparative [...] Read more.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the most influencing personalities of his fourth dimension, the perfect representation of the platonic Renaissance man, an expert painter, engineer and anatomist. Regarding Leonardo's anatomical drawings, apart from human anatomy, he besides depicted some animal species. This comparative report focused just on ii species: Bears and horses. He produced some anatomical drawings to illustrate the dissection of "a bear's foot" (Royal Collection Trust), previously described every bit "the left leg and human foot of a bear", but considering some anatomical details, we concluded that they depict the deport'due south correct pelvic limb. This misconception was due to the assumption that the behave's digit I (1st toe) was the largest ane, as in humans. We also analyzed a rough sketch (not previously reported), on the same folio, and we concluded that it depicts the left antebrachium (forearm) and manus (manus) of a dog/wolf. Regarding Leonardo's drawing representing the equus caballus anatomy "The viscera of a horse", the blood vessel arrangement and other anatomical structures are not consequent with the structure of the horse, merely are more in accordance with the anatomy of a canis familiaris. In addition, other drawings comparing the beefcake of human leg muscles to that of horse pelvic limbs were likewise discussed in motion. Full commodity

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